Reading Untuk Toefl

READING

    A.  Definition Reading
 

Readingis a complex cognitive process of decoding symbolsin order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). Reading is a means of language acquisition, communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Like all languages, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the reader�s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and refinement. In addition, reading requires creativity and critical analysis. Consumers of literature make ventures with each piece, innately deviating from literal words to create images that make sense to them in the unfamiliar places the texts describe. Because reading is such a complex process, it cannot be controlled or restricted to one or two interpretations. There are no concrete laws in reading, but rather allows readers an escape to produce their own products introspectively. This promotes deep exploration of texts during interpretation. Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory).

Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notationor pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbolsto extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals (as in the case of Braille). Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays, television, mobile phonesor e-readers. Handwrittentext may also be produced using a graphitepencilor a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object. Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a trafficor street sign. A sloganmay be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print. Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or myriad other examples. A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, it is important to be able to see an entire line of text without scrolling. The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccadesbetween them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities.The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writing. Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication: in the early 1970 has been proposed the dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud, accordingly to which there were two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, that are involved in this case, with output of both mechanisms contributing to the pronunciationof a written stimulus. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Personalised books for children are recommended to improve engagement in reading by featuring the child themselves in the story. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable.

B.     Reading Skill

Literacyis traditionally understood as the ability to read, write, and use arithmetic. The modern term's meaning has been expanded to include the ability to use language, numbers, images, computers, and other basic means to understand, communicate, gain useful knowledge and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture. The concept of literacy is expanding in OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and ability to assess complex contexts. The key to literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired, the reader can attain full language literacy, which includes the abilities to apply to printed material critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and creative thought. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analphabetism. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization defines literacy as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society.

C.    ToeflL Reading Vocabulary

This reading question type is easy to identify because you are asked what a word or phrase is closest in meaning to which of the 4 answer options. You need to be able to understand the meaning of the word as it is used in the passage. Since the word or phrase is highlighted in the reading passage, you can easily re-read the sentence it's in to help you answer. Usually the vocabulary chosen for a question is necessary to know in order to understand a key idea or concept in the passage.

Example:

Part of a passage: The stone dispatched to Cairo's Institute of Egypt for further study by Napoleon's scholars, where it was christened 'The Rosetta Stone', for obvious reasons. Although it quickly became clear that the same message was indeed engraved in three different languages, only the bottom script, in Greek, could be read. The top script consisted of fourteen rows of hieroglyphics, followed by thirty-two rows of an undecipherable Egyptian writing that was simply termed 'demotic.

Question: The word in the passage is closest in meaning to

a.   purportedly
b.   secretly
c.   forcefully
d.   hastily

Explanation: The correct answer is hastily. In the context of the sentence, promptly means to do something without delay. A definition for hastily is to do something fast. Only hastily has a similar meaning to promptly that can be used properly in the sentence. Purportedly means something that apparently happened. Secretly means to do something without other people knowing about it. Forcefully means to do something against the will of another. 
   D. Toefl Reading Question Type: Detail

The detail type of reading question asks you to identify factual information that stateddirectly in the passage. Usually the information is only given once in the passage. The question will ot ask about a general theme or idea. Sample prompts for this kind of question:

 Example:

Part of a passage: Finally, for a fear to truly be a phobia, it must be recurring. That is, if the on the plane had flown before without incident and continued to use planes after this one panic attack without experiencing further bouts of unreasonable fear, then he would not be said to be suffering from a phobia. A true aviophobic could never contemplate flying in any form without experiencing severe symptoms of acute nervousness. In this case, the man's single onset of severe panic would most likely be viewed as symptomatic of some othermental disorder, perhaps brought on by unrelated stresses in his life. Obviously, the fact that phobias are recurring fears, or rather, that they involve constant fear of the object of the phobia, should not be taken to mean that the fear can never be overcome. A person who is suffering from a phobia may, either through great effort of will, or, more likely, through a course of psychiatric treatment, conquer his phobia and cease to be frightened of whatever it was.

Question: According to the author, in paragraph 4, what might be one cause of a single instance of a phobic-like episode?

a.   Seeing plane crashes on the news
b.   Watching too much violent television
c.   Possessing a desire for public attention
d.   Having too much stress in one's life

Explanation: (D) is the correct answer. It is stated directly in the text. (A) is incorrect. Seeing plane crashes on the news is mentioned as something that might cause non-phobic nervousness in airline passengers. (B) and (C) are not mentioned in the passage.